New Delhi India

New Delhi India

Delhi spread out over the west bank of the Yamuna river and has its own historic values. Delhi developed itself as historic city old delhi and modern metro city New Delhi.
Look at the traditions and cultural values at Old Delhi where Muslim shopkeepers in Chandni Chowk, Turbaned Sikhs, colorfully dressed Rajasthani and Gujarati women, Tibetans and Ladakhis in the street stalls, Janpath and Kashmiris in the handicrafts emporims around Connaught Place, all added different colours of Indian culture at one place called Delhi. Along with tall moderns buildings, posh residential colonies and busy commercial places can be seen along with the ancient historical and heritage monuments. In some places it can be also seen as jam-packed with heavy dirty traffic, dirty beggars around the traffics, black Yamuna river, street magicians, pick pockets, local transportation buses in bad conditions and their dirty conductors and driver, crowded buses, people

It has fashion centers, boutiques and shopping malls shops and store for traditional and contemporary Indian crafts and handicrafts from all over the country. Old Delhi
Known for its crowded markets and roads, thousands of traditional buildings and monuments standing and witness of past 100s of years have been changed the city face.

Shahi Mosque, sikh’s Gurudwaras temples of Hindus and Jians, Jama Masjid, Red Fort, Delhi Gate and old iron Yamuna Bridge built by britishers, still standing however its working time period has already expired but still it is in working condition, rust free, it is a sample of intelligent and quality architecture.

Delhi India ! Delhi is the capital of India, it is known as old delhi and new delhi, Old Delhi known for its historical values, and New Delhi known for its modernity, the famous tourist destinations are Red fort, Humayun's Tomb, Jama Masjid, Old fort, India Gate, Lotus temple, Jantar mantar, Qutub Minar, Chandni Chowk.

Location: North Center of India
Famous As: Capital of India
Delhi History: Shahjahan decided to shift his capital from Agra to New Delhi.
State: New Delhi, India

'Old' Delhi, “the heart of Delhi” was the capital of India between the mid-17th and late 19th centuries, is full of awesome forts, mosques and monuments. Old Delhi is a lively area of colourful bazaars, narrow streets and hardly controlled confusion. In contrast, New Delhi, the grand city created by the British Raj, is balanced of spacious, tree-lined avenues and striking government buildings, and has a sense of order. Tourists to Delhi get two cities Old Delhi and New Delhi for the price of one.

Attractions & Places in Delhi - India

New Delhi is an international metropolis with excellent tourist spots, recreational facilities, and a history that goes back to antiquity. There are several beautiful and historic architectures and places to see. New Delhi covered with green trees and gardens which are amazing part of New Delhi. New Delhi is also a dream city for visitors looking for items of handicrafts, not only the rich artistic crafts of its own craftsmen but also of craftsmen from all over the country. New Delhi offers a huge number of interesting places and attractions to the tourist.
Red fort, India Gate, Jama Masjid, Old Fort, lotus temple, Humayu Tomb, Safdarjang Tomb, Several Dargah, Parliament House, National Zoological park, Chandni Chowk Bazar, Canaught Place, Janpath, Qutub Minar and several other monuments and places.

New Delhi Tourist Attractions

New Delhi is an international metropolis with excellent tourist spots, recreational facilities, and a history that goes back to antiquity. There are several beautiful and historic architectures and places to see. New Delhi covered with green trees and gardens which are amazing part of New Delhi. New Delhi is also a dream city for visitors looking for items of handicrafts, not only the rich artistic crafts of its own craftsmen but also of craftsmen from all over the country. New Delhi offers a huge number of interesting places and attractions to the tourist.

Rashtrapati Bhawan
New Delhi centers around the Rashtrapati Bhawan This graceful building is a very impressive architectural building standing at a height, is truly worth seeing, for its historic significance and architectural beauty. The beautiful Mughal Gardens, which is open to the public in spring, is an added lure. Mughal Gardens is surely a place to see.

India Gate
India Gate a memorial decorated with the names of the brave Indian soldiers who laid down their lives in first World War. The evening at India gate is famous for its beauty with green lawns, standing trees in a queue and the attraction to see local crowd in the lawns at India Gate. A must visit beautiful place in New Delhi.

Red Fort

It is a history standing itself in Old Delhi with its proof. When Shahjahan decided to shift his capital from Agra to New Delhi, the decision for constructing the fort was taken in 1639. The Red Fort still retains some of its lost glory. The Red Fort was the last fort built in New Delhi. this royal building made of red sandstone is the location from where the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation every Independence Day

Raj Ghat
Raj Ghat On the bank of the renowned Yamuna river, which flows past New Delhi, there is Raj Ghat-the last resting place of Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation.
Shanti Vana
Lying close to the Raj Ghat, the Shanti Vana (literally, the forest of peace) is the place where India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was cremated. The area is now a beautiful park adorned by trees planted by visiting dignitaries and heads of state.

Qutab Minar
The Qutab Minar India is located at a small village called Mehrauli in South New Delhi. Qutub-ud-din Aibak built Qutub Minar during the reign of Sultan in 1199 A.D in Delhi-India.It is a fluted red sandstone tower, which tapers up to a height of 72.5 metres and is covered with intricate carvings and verses from the holy Qur'an. Qutab Minar India is a landmark of New Delhi and a place to remember history.

Laxminarayan Temple
Also called the Birla Mandir, the Laxminarayan Temple was built by the Birla family in 1938. It is a temple with a large garden and fountains behind it. The temple attracts thousands of devotees on Janmashtami day, the birthday of Lord Krishna.

Humayun's Tomb
Humayun’s Tomb Designed by a Persian architect named Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, and completed in 1556, the structure was a trendsetter of the time by remains a must visit place in New Delhi till date. Built by Humayun's wife, Hamida Begum, in 1556, nine years after Humayun's death, this elegantly balanced tomb, set on a platform amidst a garden, is believed to have influenced the design of the Taj Mahal.

Chandni Chowk
Chandni Chowk (India) remains Asia's largest wholesale market Chandni Chowk (India) the living legacy of New Delhi (India) is Shahjahanabad. Created by the builder of Taj Mahal (India), this city, with the Red Fort (India) as the focal point and Jama Masjid (India) as the praying centre, has a charming market planned, called Chandni Chowk (India). Shahjahan planned Chandni Chowk (India). It was divided by canals filled with water, which glisten like silver in moonlight. The canals are now closed.

Bahai Temple / Lotus Temple
The Bahai Temple, situated in South New Delhi, is shaped like a lotus.

Old Fort / Purana Quila
This is also a historic symbol standing itself to show its royalty. The Purana Quila is a good example of medieval military architecture. Purana Qila (India) Built by Humayun, the Purana Quila (India) is a monument of bold design, which is strong, simple and every inch a castle. It is different from the well planned, carefully decorated, and palatial forts of the later Mughal rulers. The main purpose of this fort was its utility, with less weight on decoration. The Qal'a-I-Kunha Masjid and the Sher Mandal are two important monuments inside the fort.

Jama Masjid
Built during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, one of the largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid's large courtyard, onion domes and central tank are built of red sandstone and white marble in the Indo-Islamic style.

a summary essay Partition of India

Timeline leading to Partition

1858- The India Act: power transferred to British Government.

1885- Indian National Congress founded by Allen. O. Hume to unite all Indians and strengthen bonds with Britain.

1905- First Partition of Bengal for administrative purposes. Gives the Muslims a majority in that state.

1906- All India Muslim League founded to promote Muslim political interests.

1909-Revocation of Partition of Bengal. Creates anti-British and anti-Hindu sentiments among Muslims as they lose their majority in East Bengal.

1916-Lucknow Pact. The Congress and the League unite in demand for greater self-government. It is denied by the British.

1919- Amritsar Massacre. General Dyer opens fire on 20,000 unarmed Indian civilians at a political demonstration Congress and the League lose faith in the British.

1919-Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (implemented in 1921). Communal representation institutionalised for the first timeas reserved legislative seats are allocated for significant minorities.

1920-Gandhi launches a non-violent, non-cooperation movement, or Satyagraha, against the British for a free India.

1929-Congress calls for full independence.

1930-Dr. Allama Iqbal, a poet-politician, calls for a separate homeland for the Muslims at the Allahabad session of the Muslim League. Gandhi starts Civil Disobedience Movement against the Salt Laws by which the British had a monopoly over production and sale of salt.

1930-31-The Round Table conferences, set up to consider Dominion status for India. They fail because of non-attendance by the Congress and because Gandhi, who does attend, claims he is the only representative of all of India.

1931- Irwin-Gandhi Pact, which concedes to Gandhi's demands at the Round Table conferences and further isolates Muslim League from the Congress and the British.

1935-Government of India Act: proposes a federal India of political provinces with elected local governments but British control over foreign policy and defence.

1937-Elections. Congress gains majority.

1940- Jinnah calls for establishment of Pakistan in an independent and partitioned India.

1942-Cripps Mission o India, to conduct negotiations between all political parties and to set up a cabinet government. Congress adopts Quit India Resolution, to rid India of British rule. Congress leaders arrested for obstructing war effort.

1942-43-Muslim League gains more power: ministries formed in Sind, Bengal and North-West Frontier Province and greater influence in the Punjab.

1944-Gandhi released from prison. Unsuccessful Gandhi-Jinnah talks, but Muslims see this as an acknowledgment that Jinnah represents all Indian Muslims.

1946-Muslim League participates in Interim Government that is set up according to the Cabinet Mission Plan.

1947-Announcement of Lord Mountbatten's plan for partition of India, 3 June. Partition of India and Pakistan, 15 August. Radcliffe Award of boundaries of the nations, 16 August.

1971-East Pakistan separates from West Pakistan and Bangladesh is born.

India Pakistan Wars

Indo-pak war essay summary

India Pakistan wars : The first test for the Indian armed forces came shortly after independence with the first Indo-Pakistani conflict (1947-48). The military was called upon to defend the borders of the state of Jammu and Kashmir when tribals--principally Pathans--attacked from the northwest reaches of Kashmir on October 22, 1947. India's 161st Infantry Brigade was deployed and thwarted the advance of the tribal forces. In early November 1947, the 161st counterattacked and successfully broke through the enemy defenses. Despite early successes, the Indian army suffered a setback in December because of logistical problems. The problems enabled the forces of Azad Kashmir (Free Kashmir, as the part of Kashmir under Pakistani control is called) to take the initiative and force the Indian troops to retreat from the border areas. In the spring of 1948, the Indian side mounted another offensive to retake some of the ground that it had lost. No doubt fearing that the war might move into Pakistan proper, regular units of the Pakistani army became more actively involved. As the conflict escalated, the Indian leadership was quick to recognize that the war could not be brought to a close unless Pakistani support for the Azad Kashmir forces could be stopped. Accordingly, on the advice of Governor General Earl Louis Mountbatten (Britain's last viceroy in India in 1947 and governor general of India, 1947-48), the Indian government sought United Nations (UN) mediation of the conflict on December 31, 1947. There was some opposition to this move within the cabinet by those who did not agree with referring the Kashmir dispute to the UN. The UN mediation process brought the war to a close on January 1, 1949. In all, 1,500 soldiers died on each side during the war.

The second Indo-Pakistani conflict (1965) was also fought over Kashmir and started without a formal declaration of war. It is widely accepted that the war began with the infiltration of Pakistani-controlled guerrillas into Indian Kashmir on about August 5, 1965. Skirmishes with Indian forces started as early as August 6 or 7, and the first major engagement between the regular armed forces of the two sides took place on August 14. The next day, Indian forces scored a major victory after a prolonged artillery barrage and captured three important mountain positions in the northern sector. Later in the month, the Pakistanis counterattacked, moving concentrations near Tithwal, Uri, and Punch. Their move, in turn, provoked a powerful Indian thrust into Azad Kashmir. Other Indian forces captured a number of strategic mountain positions and eventually took the key Haji Pir Pass, eight kilometers inside Pakistani territory.

The Indian gains led to a major Pakistani counterattack on September 1 in the southern sector, in Punjab, where Indian forces were caught unprepared and suffered heavy losses. The sheer strength of the Pakistani thrust, which was spearheaded by seventy tanks and two infantry brigades, led Indian commanders to call in air support. Pakistan retaliated on September 2 with its own air strikes in both Kashmir and Punjab. The war was at the point of stalemate when the UN Security Council unanimously passed a resolution on September 20 that called for a cease-fire. New Delhi accepted the cease-fire resolution on September 21 and Islamabad on September 22, and the war ended on September 23. The Indian side lost 3,000 while the Pakistani side suffered 3,800 battlefield deaths. The Soviet-brokered Tashkent Declaration was signed on January 10, 1966. It required that both sides withdraw by February 26, 1966, to positions held prior to August 5, 1965, and observe the cease-fire line agreed to on June 30, 1965.

The origins of the third Indo-Pakistani conflict (1971) were different from the previous conflicts. The Pakistani failure to accommodate demands for autonomy in East Pakistan in 1970 led to secessionist demands in 1971 (see The Rise of Indira Gandhi, ch. 1). In March 1971, Pakistan's armed forces launched a fierce campaign to suppress the resistance movement that had emerged but encountered unexpected mass defections among East Pakistani soldiers and police. The Pakistani forces regrouped and reasserted their authority over most of East Pakistan by May.

As a result of these military actions, thousands of East Pakistanis died at the hands of the Pakistani army. Resistance fighters and nearly 10 million refugees fled to sanctuary in West Bengal, the adjacent Indian state. By midsummer, the Indian leadership, in the absence of a political solution to the East Pakistan crisis, had fashioned a strategy designed to assist the establishment of the independent nation of Bangladesh. As part of this strategy, in August 1971, India signed a twenty-year Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. One of the treaty's clauses implied that each nation was expected to come to the assistance of the other in the event of a threat to national security such as that occurring in the 1965 war with Pakistan. Simultaneously, India organized, trained, and provided sanctuary to the Mukti Bahini (meaning Liberation Force in Bengali), the East Pakistani armed resistance fighters.

Unable to deter India's activities in the eastern sector, on December 3, 1971, Pakistan launched an air attack in the western sector on a number of Indian airfields, including Ambala in Haryana, Amritsar in Punjab, and Udhampur in Jammu and Kashmir. The attacks did not succeed in inflicting substantial damage. The Indian air force retaliated the next day and quickly achieved air superiority. On the ground, the strategy in the eastern sector marked a significant departure from previous Indian battle plans and tactics, which had emphasized set-piece battles and slow advances. The strategy adopted was a swift, three-pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armored units and close air support that rapidly converged on Dhaka, the capital of East Pakistan. Lieutenant General Sagat Singh, who commanded the eighth, twenty-third, and fifty-seventh divisions, led the Indian thrust into East Pakistan. As these forces attacked Pakistani formations, the Indian air force rapidly destroyed the small air contingent in East Pakistan and put the Dhaka airfield out of commission. In the meantime, the Indian navy effectively blockaded East Pakistan. Dhaka fell to combined Indian and Mukti Bahini forces on December 16, bringing a quick end to the war.

Action in the western sector was divided into four segments, from the cease-fire line in Jammu and Kashmir to the marshes of the Rann of Kutch in northwestern Gujarat. On the evening of December 3, the Pakistani army launched ground operations in Kashmir and Punjab. It also started an armored operation in Rajasthan. In Kashmir, the operations were concentrated on two key points, Punch and Chhamb. The Chhamb area witnessed a particularly intense battle where the Pakistanis forced the Indians to withdraw from their positions. In other parts of Kashmir, the Indians made some small gains along the cease-fire line. The major Indian counteroffensive came in the Sialkot-Shakargarh area south and west of Chhamb. There, two Pakistani tank regiments, equipped with United States-made Patton tanks, confronted the Indian First Armored Corps, which had British Centurion tanks. In what proved to be the largest tank battle of the war, both sides suffered considerable casualties.

Though the Indian conduct of the land war on the western front was somewhat timid, the role of the Indian air force was both extensive and daring. During the fourteen-day war, the air force's Western Command conducted some 4,000 sorties. There was little retaliation by Pakistan's air force, partly because of the paucity of non-Bengali technical personnel. Additionally, this lack of retaliation reflected the deliberate decision of the Pakistan Air Force headquarters to conserve its forces because of heavy losses incurred in the early days of the war.

RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY

India as a country has been bestowed with several nomenclatures. Right from unity in diversity to birthplace of Hinduism and Sanskrit, the land has always been admired and revered for its rich cultural legacy and variety that it offers. India is a story, a legend, folklore and an anecdote in itself. It needs no introduction, no specific mention. It has continued to thrive for centuries and there are bright chances of it being the next super power. The country has always nourished numerous cultures, traditions and religions. All the major religions thrive in India and none of them have ever felt insecure or unprotected. That’s the beauty of the land.

Go to any part of rich India and you will find numerous temple and shrines and all of them contain their own unique stories. We have always believed in beautiful and fascinating description of Indian Gods and Goddesses. Many stories have been told and retold in different fashions about how particular God originated in a particular place. All the descriptions of deities are believable and they convey just one message of Good winning over the evil. Gods in Indian religion have always fought monsters and even taken human forms to conquer evils in convincing manner. Right from north India to southern and western states, everywhere one can find plenty of amazing tales about our religion and sustenance over the centuries. The essence remains the same, the versions differ.

Indian mythology has always been popular among masses. Its effect can be seen from different religious functions and tales told to the kids by their grandma. The virtues have always been exemplified by the conduct of the Gods. Many present day symbols have been born from our mythology and religious beliefs. For example, Om or Swastika or Trishul etc have always been revered. Religious beliefs are in tune with our traditional way of living and we as staunch believers still believe in following the rules and customs. When you hear of stories about our mythological characters like Ram, Sita, Hanuman, Ravana, Ganesha, Krishna and Bhima etc you get to know about what the essence of India is made of. These characters are now being used in animation movies that will be further helpful in making new generation aware of India’s famous religions and mythology. Religion and mythology is no less than precious treasure that must be respected and preserved.

India is a story in itself. There have been civilizations and archaeological facts that are constantly being researched about the birth place of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Though many times there are fake inventions, there seems a lot of history in the shrines and temples in India. Each depiction of God and villains seems appropriate with the truth winning over the evil. Each time and place has the new emergence of a Hindu God who takes care of the three worlds and slays the evil. A swastika or an Om is a revered sign and mentioned as prosperity. There are many symbols like the Trishul or the Trident which is not displayed everywhere as it is considered aggressive. It is customary to smear ash or sandalwood powder in the forehead as it cools the mind. These are beliefs turned to tradition and most of us follow the rules and codes.The latest generation is quite inquisitive about facts yet totally appreciates the quests of Lord Rama, the slaying of the ten headed Ravana, the piousness of Sita and the loyalty of Hanuman. Animation flicks are being created showing characters like Gathotkach the son of Bhima, Hanuman and Ganesha. Though these are kid specials, this would be the best way to teach them about Gods and religion. Dashavatar is a wonderful combination of story and the magnanimous nature of Lord Vishnu. Each avatar or creation has a set nature and character. It is mind blowing to see the story narration and is well received by the all of us. Our art and culture have direct relation with the mythology. The Shravan month is a holy time where people get religiously and maintain fasting. This is also the time for the beginning of all festivals.Magic or splendor is what we see at the Ganesh Chaturthi festival in India. The Durga Puja is another feat. South traditions relate to Lord Muruga( Karthik) or Lord Ayyappa. The shrine of Vaishnodevi in Jammu involves climbing a steep mountain of 14 kilometers bent and the mission seems accomplished once we see the holy pind. People hold allegiance and complete belief in miracles when life challenges them. Mythology is the treasure of Indian religion and must be given to our progeny.

The Hoysalas of Karnataka

by Ashish Nangia

The flourishing temple styles in North India - both the Khajuraho and the Orissi versions - were brought to a rude end with the Muslim invasion. When the Muslims consolidated their hold over North India, temple-building activity virtually stopped. Entire families of skilled craftsmen were now presented with two choices - the first of which was to work for their new masters and abandon the idea of building a temple as an offering to God. This resulted in the fusion of Persian and Indian building styles and was to result in an entirely new idiom, as we shall see later.

Another option was to migrate further and further south, in search of work and new patrons, where Muslim influence had not yet made inroads. This was the region around modern Mysore, where the hitherto unknown Hoysala tribe was making its first moves towards glory. Having overthrown their former overlords, the Cholas, the Hoysalas were in no mood to imitate their architectural style and were looking for something with its own distinct identity. The craftsmen migrating from the north were able to provide just such an impetus.

The merging of the Dravidian and North Indian styles created a temple that is unique, so much so that it is often classified as the Hoysala style. The early experiments were found on the extreme edges of the kingdom, around ancient Dwarasamudra. The profile of the temples at Ittagi, Gadag and Lakhundi reveals that the craftsman's most visible contribution was a subtle merging of the two spire forms - the horizontal tiers of the pyramidal south Indian vimana and the round-shouldered elegance of the northern shikhara.

Gradually this hybrid evolved into an identifiable style, rivaling in grace and beauty its predecessors.

The Star in Plan

To add to its distinctiveness, the Hoysala temple in plan composed of numerous cellas or garbha-grihas served by a common mandapa. The plan of each of these cellas was a star. The departure from the accepted square form of the temple is understandable when we analyze the plan and see that it is made up of a grid of rotating squares. The resulting outline thus emerges as a star. The mandapa remained a square, though it was now distinguished by circular columns, the shafts of which had been lathed and thus acquired a number of parallel knife-edges.

Among the examples of the developed Hoysala style, the Chenna Kesava temple at modern Belur is one of the finest. This was designed and planned by the architect Janaka Acharya at the behest of King Vishnuvardhan.

Though built around a single shrine, the temple has all the distinguishing features of the Hoysala style - a pillared mandapa, bell-shaped towers and above all the star-shaped plan. The gaps between the outer pillars were covered with a jaali meant to provide privacy for the Brahmins, and especially the 'highly seductive dancing of the devdasis'.*

The mandapa of this temple has an extremely beautiful circular stone platform, lustrously polished after years and years of dance on it - the ritualistic, devotional Bharata Natyam of the South.

Splendor in Halebid

Not content with this little gem in Belur, the king commissioned an even larger and more magnificent temple in his new capital city of Halebid. The architect proceeded to lay out two identical temples, parallel and connected at their transepts.

The Halebid temple is one of the most fitting climaxes to the sculptor's art in India. While architecturally it was not revolutionary, especially after Belur, it is in its rich sensuous sculpture that this example comes into its own. The high plinth of the temple is a virtual tapestry of sculpture, with bands of dancing figures, animals, vegetation and other objects coming to life on its surface.

According to Percy Brown, the 'Halebid Temple and the Parthenon are probably the two extremes of the architectural art of the world'. 'The one revels in the cold purity of its form and the other in the warm complexity of its sculptural architectonics'.**

The Last Chapter

The Hoysala temples were among the last temples of consequence to be built in India. Muslim invasions were fast taking their toll and kings were more concerned about fighting off the invaders than with artistic and architectural endeavors.

However, the Vijayanagara empire further south held on a little bit longer. The marvels at Hampi are the last examples of mediaeval Hindu architecture we shall discuss - in the next column.

June 23, 2001

* Grover, Satish The Architecture of India - Buddhist and Hindu, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. , New Delhi, 1980.
** ibid

Images under license with Gettyimages.com

Southern dynasties in India

Southern Dynasties in India : The sultans' failure to hold securely the Deccan and South India resulted in the rise of competing southern dynasties: the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate (1347-1527) and the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565). Zafar Khan, a former provincial governor under the Tughluqs, revolted against his Turkic overlord and proclaimed himself sultan, taking the title Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah in 1347. The Bahmani Sultanate, located in the northern Deccan, lasted for almost two centuries, until it fragmented into five smaller states in 1527. The Bahmani Sultanate adopted the patterns established by the Delhi overlords in tax collection and administration, but its downfall was caused in large measure by the competition and hatred between deccani (domiciled Muslim immigrants and local converts) and paradesi (foreigners or officials in temporary service). The Bahmani Sultanate initiated a process of cultural synthesis visible in Hyderabad, where cultural flowering is still expressed in vigorous schools of deccani architecture and painting.

Southern Dynasties in India :

Founded in 1336, the empire of Vijayanagar (named for its capital Vijayanagar, "City of Victory," in present-day Karnataka) expanded rapidly toward Madurai in the south and Goa in the west and exerted intermittent control over the east coast and the extreme southwest. Vijayanagar rulers closely followed Chola precedents, especially in collecting agricultural and trade revenues, in giving encouragement to commercial guilds, and in honoring temples with lavish endowments. Added revenue needed for waging war against the Bahmani sultans was raised by introducing a set of taxes on commercial enterprises, professions, and industries. Political rivalry between the Bahmani and the Vijayanagar rulers involved control over the Krishna-Tunghabadhra river basin, which shifted hands depending on whose military was superior at any given time. The Vijayanagar rulers' capacity for gaining victory over their enemies was contingent on ensuring a constant supply of horses--initially through Arab traders but later through the Portuguese--and maintaining internal roads and communication networks. Merchant guilds enjoyed a wide sphere of operation and were able to offset the power of landlords and Brahmans in court politics. Commerce and shipping eventually passed largely into the hands of foreigners, and special facilities and tax concessions were provided for them by the ruler. Arabs and Portuguese competed for influence and control of west coast ports, and, in 1510, Goa passed into Portuguese possession.

The city of Vijayanagar itself contained numerous temples with rich ornamentation, especially the gateways, and a cluster of shrines for the deities. Most prominent among the temples was the one dedicated to Virupaksha, a manifestation of Shiva, the patron-deity of the Vijayanagar rulers. Temples continued to be the nuclei of diverse cultural and intellectual activities, but these activities were based more on tradition than on contemporary political realities. (However, the first Vijayanagar ruler--Harihara I--was a Hindu who converted to Islam and then reconverted to Hinduism for political expediency.) The temples sponsored no intellectual exchange with Islamic theologians because Muslims were generally assigned to an "impure" status and were thus excluded from entering temples. When the five rulers of what was once the Bahmani Sultanate combined their forces and attacked Vijayanagar in 1565, the empire crumbled at the Battle of Talikot.

Southern Dynasties in India page

Data as of September 1995

India- Gupta and Harsha The classical Age

Gupta age - The Classical Age refers to the period when most of North India was reunited under the Gupta Empire (ca. A.D. 320-550). Because of the relative peace, law and order, and extensive cultural achievements during this period, it has been described as a "golden age" that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture with all its variety, contradiction, and synthesis. The golden age was confined to the north, and the classical patterns began to spread south only after the Gupta Empire had vanished from the historical scene.

The military exploits of the first three rulers--Chandragupta I (ca. 319-335), Samudragupta (ca. 335-376), and Chandragupta II (ca. 376-415)--brought all of North India under their leadership. From Pataliputra, their capital, they sought to retain political preeminence as much by pragmatism and judicious marriage alliances as by military strength. Despite their self-conferred titles, their overlordship was threatened and by 500 ultimately ruined by the Hunas (a branch of the White Huns emanating from Central Asia), who were yet another group in the long succession of ethnically and culturally different outsiders drawn into India and then woven into the hybrid Indian fabric.

Under Harsha Vardhana (or Harsha, r. 606-47), North India was reunited briefly, but neither the Gupta Empire nor Harsha controlled a centralized state, and their administrative styles rested on the collaboration of regional and local officials for administering their rule rather than on centrally appointed personnel. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy.

The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama.

The religion that later developed into modern Hinduism witnessed a crystallization of its components: major sectarian deities, image worship, devotionalism, and the importance of the temple.

Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. The Indian numeral system--sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system--and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in 499, moreover, gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully evolved system, resembling those of Hippocrates and Galen in Greece. Although progress in physiology and biology was hindered by religious injunctions against contact with dead bodies, which discouraged dissection and anatomy, Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and skin grafting (see Science and Technology, ch. 6).

The Southern Rivals

When Gupta disintegration was complete, the classical patterns of civilization continued to thrive not only in the middle Ganga Valley and the kingdoms that emerged on the heels of Gupta demise but also in the Deccan and in South India, which acquired a more prominent place in history. In fact, from the mid-seventh to the mid-thirteenth centuries, regionalism was the dominant theme of political or dynastic history of South Asia. Three features, as political scientist Radha Champakalakshmi has noted, commonly characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period. First, the spread of Brahmanical religions was a two-way process of Sanskritization of local cults and localization of Brahmanical social order. Second was the ascendancy of the Brahman priestly and landowning groups that later dominated regional institutions and political developments. Third, because of the seesawing of numerous dynasties that had a remarkable ability to survive perennial military attacks, regional kingdoms faced frequent defeats but seldom total annihilation.

Peninsular India was involved in an eighth-century tripartite power struggle among the Chalukyas (556-757) of Vatapi, the Pallavas (300-888) of Kanchipuram, and the Pandyas (seventh through the tenth centuries) of Madurai. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas, who ruled from 753 to 973. Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms.

Despite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries. The absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts. Extensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the Arabs on the west coast and with Southeast Asia. Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in Southeast Asia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature, and social customs.

The interdynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the Deccan and South India patronized all three religions--Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. The religions vied with each other for royal favor, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders. The cave temples of Elephanta Island (near Bombay, or Mumbai in Marathi), Ajanta, and Ellora (in Maharashtra), and structural temples of Kanchipuram (in Tamil Nadu) are enduring legacies of otherwise warring regional rulers. By the mid-seventh century, Buddhism and Jainism began to decline as sectarian Hindu devotional cults of Shiva and Vishnu vigorously competed for popular support.

Although Sanskrit was the language of learning and theology in South India, as it was in the north, the growth of the bhakti (devotional) movements enhanced the crystallization of vernacular literature in all four major Dravidian languages: Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada; they often borrowed themes and vocabulary from Sanskrit but preserved much local cultural lore. Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems, Cilappatikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai (The Jewelled Belt); the body of devotional literature of Shaivism and Vaishnavism--Hindu devotional movements; and the reworking of the Ramayana by Kamban in the twelfth century. A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India's history through the centuries. Gupta Empire page. Data as of September 1995

Mauryan Empire timeline, economic, political structure, features of Mauryan empire

Although Indian accounts to a large extent ignored Alexander the Great's Indus campaign in 326 B.C., Greek writers recorded their impressions of the general conditions prevailing in South Asia during this period. Thus, the year 326 B.C. provides the first clear and historically verifiable date in Indian history. A two-way cultural fusion between several Indo-Greek elements--especially in art, architecture, and coinage--occurred in the next several hundred years. North India's political landscape was transformed by the emergence of Magadha in the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain. In 322 B.C., Magadha, under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya, began to assert its hegemony over neighboring areas. Chandragupta, who ruled from 324 to 301 B.C., was the architect of the first Indian imperial power--the Mauryan Empire (326-184 B.C.)--whose capital was Pataliputra, near modern-day Patna, in Bihar.

Situated on rich alluvial soil and near mineral deposits, especially iron, Magadha was at the center of bustling commerce and trade. The capital was a city of magnificent palaces, temples, a university, a library, gardens, and parks, as reported by Megasthenes, the third-century B.C. Greek historian and ambassador to the Mauryan court. Legend states that Chandragupta's success was due in large measure to his adviser Kautilya, the Brahman author of the Arthashastra (Science of Material Gain), a textbook that outlined governmental administration and political strategy. There was a highly centralized and hierarchical government with a large staff, which regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial arts, mining, vital statistics, welfare of foreigners, maintenance of public places including markets and temples, and prostitutes. A large standing army and a well-developed espionage system were maintained. The empire was divided into provinces, districts, and villages governed by a host of centrally appointed local officials, who replicated the functions of the central administration.

Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta, ruled from 269 to 232 B.C. and was one of India's most illustrious rulers. Ashoka's inscriptions chiseled on rocks and stone pillars located at strategic locations throughout his empire--such as Lampaka (Laghman in modern Afghanistan), Mahastan (in modern Bangladesh), and Brahmagiri (in Karnataka)--constitute the second set of datable historical records. According to some of the inscriptions, in the aftermath of the carnage resulting from his campaign against the powerful kingdom of Kalinga (modern Orissa), Ashoka renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of nonviolence or ahimsa, espousing a theory of rule by righteousness. His toleration for different religious beliefs and languages reflected the realities of India's regional pluralism although he personally seems to have followed Buddhism (see Buddhism, ch. 3). Early Buddhist stories assert that he convened a Buddhist council at his capital, regularly undertook tours within his realm, and sent Buddhist missionary ambassadors to Sri Lanka.
Contacts established with the Hellenistic world in The Mauryan Empire the reign of Ashoka's predecessors served him well. He sent diplomatic-cum-religious missions to the rulers of Syria, Macedonia, and Epirus, who learned about India's religious traditions, especially Buddhism. India's northwest retained many Persian cultural elements, which might explain Ashoka's rock inscriptions--such inscriptions were commonly associated with Persian rulers. Ashoka's Greek and Aramaic inscriptions found in Kandahar in Afghanistan may also reveal his desire to maintain ties with people outside of India.
After the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire in the second century B.C., South Asia became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. India's unguarded northwestern border again attracted a series of invaders between 200 B.C. and A.D. 300. As the Aryans had done, the invaders became "Indianized" in the process of their conquest and settlement. Also, this period witnessed remarkable intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism. The Indo-Greeks, or the Bactrians, of the northwest contributed to the development of numismatics; they were followed by another group, the Shakas (or Scythians), from the steppes of Central Asia, who settled in western India. Still other nomadic people, the Yuezhi, who were forced out of the Inner Asian steppes of Mongolia, drove the Shakas out of northwestern India and established the Kushana Kingdom (first century B.C.-third century A.D.). The Kushana Kingdom controlled parts of Afghanistan and Iran, and in India the realm stretched from Purushapura (modern Peshawar, Pakistan) in the northwest, to Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) in the east, and to Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) in the south. For a short period, the kingdom reached still farther east, to Pataliputra. The Kushana Kingdom was the crucible of trade among the Indian, Persian, Chinese, and Roman empires and controlled a critical part of the legendary Silk Road. Kanishka, who reigned for two decades starting around A.D. 78, was the most noteworthy Kushana ruler. He converted to Buddhism and convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. The Kushanas were patrons of Gandharan art, a synthesis between Greek and Indian styles, and Sanskrit literature. They initiated a new era called Shaka in A.D. 78, and their calendar, which was formally recognized by India for civil purposes starting on March 22, 1957, is still in use.The Mauryan Empire page

Indian Kingdoms, Indian Empires

LEARN ABOUT ANCIENT INDIA KINGDOMS, INDIAN RULERS & ANCIENT INDIAN EMPIRES

From their original settlements in the Punjab region, the Aryans gradually began to penetrate eastward, clearing dense forests and establishing "tribal" settlements along the Ganga & Yamuna ( Jamuna ) plains between 1500 and ca. 800 B.C. By around 500 B.C., most of northern India was inhabited and had been brought under cultivation, facilitating the increasing knowledge of the use of iron implements, including ox-drawn plows, and spurred by the growing population that provided voluntary and forced labor. As riverine and inland trade flourished, many towns along the Ganga became centers of trade, culture, and luxurious living. Increasing population and surplus production provided the bases for the emergence of independent states with fluid territorial boundaries over which disputes frequently arose.

The rudimentary administrative system headed by tribal chieftains was transformed by a number of regional republics or hereditary monarchies that devised ways to appropriate revenue and to conscript labor for expanding the areas of settlement and agriculture farther east and south, beyond the Narmada River. These emergent states collected revenue through officials, maintained armies, and built new cities and highways. By 600 B.C., sixteen such territorial powers--including the Magadha, Kosala, Kuru, and Gandhara--stretched across the North India plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh. The right of a king to his throne, no matter how it was gained, was usually legitimized through elaborate sacrifice rituals and genealogies concocted by priests who ascribed to the king divine or superhuman origins.

The victory of good over evil is epitomized in the epic Ramayana (The Travels of Rama, or Ram in the preferred modern form), while another epic, Mahabharata (Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata), spells out the concept of dharma and duty. More than 2,500 years later, Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi, the father of modern India, used these concepts in the fight for independence (see Mahatma Gandhi, this ch.). The Mahabharata records the feud between Aryan cousins that culminated in an epic battle in which both gods and mortals from many lands allegedly fought to the death, and the Ramayana recounts the kidnapping of Sita, Rama's wife, by Ravana, a demonic king of Lanka (Sri Lanka), her rescue by her husband (aided by his animal allies), and Rama's coronation, leading to a period of prosperity and justice.

In the late twentieth century, these epics remain dear to the hearts of Hindus and are commonly read and enacted in many settings. In the 1980s and 1990s, Ram's story has been exploited by Hindu militants and politicians to gain power, and the much disputed Ramjanmabhumi, the birth site of Ram, has become an extremely sensitive communal issue, potentially pitting Hindu majority against Muslim minority (see Public Worship, ch. 3; Political Issues, ch. 8). Indian Kingdom page.Library of congress 1995

Index

Content

The Sun Temple of Konark marks the highest point of achievement of Kalinga architecture depicting the grace , the joy and the rhythm of life all it's wondrous variety. There is an endless wealth of decoration from minute pattterns in bas-relief done with a jeweller's precision to boldly modelled free standing sculptures of exceptionally large size. Under the crackling wheels of past events , the Sun Temple has lost its main sanctuary but the remaining structure and the ruins arouns testify till today the boundless creative energy of Orissan artistes and their impresive contribution to the treasury of Indian Art and building technique. Standing majestically on the sandy coast of the Bay of Bengal, the porch, in its solitary grandeur is an eloquent testimony of a gracious and mysterious past. Dedicated to Sun God, this temple was constructed by Raja Narasinghs Deva-I of the Ganga Dynasty was dazzling supreme in the political firmament of India

FAME OF THE SUN TEMPLE

That the fame of the this temple as a wonderful monument has spread far beyond the limits of Orissa in the sixteen century is amply borne out not only by the great Vaishnava Saint Chaitanya's (AD-1486-1533) visit to the place but also by the following pithy description which appeared in the A'in-i-Akbari of Abu'l-Fazl, the famous chronicler of the court of Akbar (AD-1556-1605)

..........."Near Jagannath is a temple dedicated to the Sun. Its cost was defrayed by twelve years revenue of the province. Even those whose judgement is critical and who are difficult to please stand astonished at its sight." ......

ARCHITECTURAL GLORY OF THE SUN TEMPLE

The Sun Templ e built in the thirteenth century was conveived as a gigantic chariot of Sun God, with twelve pairs of exquisitely ornamented wheels pulled by seven pairs of horses. Majestic in conception, this Temple is indeed one of the most sublime monuments of India, famous as much for its imposing dimensions and faultless proportions as for the harmonious integration of of architectural grandeur with plastic allegiance. It is admittedly the best in Orissa. Its fine traceries and scroll work , the beautiful and natural cut of animal and human figures, all give it a superiority over other temples. The chief quality is its design and architectural details. The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga School of Indian Temples with characteristic curvilinear towers mounted by Cupolas. In shape, the Temple did not make any major departure from other sikhara temples of Orissa. The main sanctum which (229 ft. high) was constructed alongwith the audience hall (128 ft. high) having elaborate external projections. The main sanctum which enshrined the presiding deity has fallen off. The Audience Hall survives in its entirely but of the other two viz the Dancing Hall(nata Mandir) and the Dining Hall (Bhoga-Mandap), only small portions have survived the vagaries of time. The Temple compound measures 857 ft. by 540 ft.

The alignment of the Sun Temple is on the east-west direction. The Temple is located in natural surroundings, abounding with casuarina plantations and other types of trees, wchich grow on sandy soil. The environment is by and large unspoiled. Gentle undulating topography around the Sun Temple lends some variation to the landscape

INDIAN MONUMENTS

Stories and legends are told about the great monuments in India. India has a vast culture, interesting facts and the revelations are marvelous. As one looks at the beauty of Taj Mahal, we can just see the love Emperor Shah Jahan had for his wife. The work of Ustad Isa Khan, the architect who designed this piece is exquisite. This is surely one of the best heritage sites in India.
Down south is the Meenakshi Sundareshwar temple which bears the Shiv linga which was worshipped by Lord Indra to absolve him from sin. The Meenakshi Sundareshwar temple is a granite form and has twelve gopuras. Gopuras are the traditional architectural towers in the south of India. There are several shrines with the primary two shrines of the main Shiva and Parvathy.

The Nagara architecture is well seen in the Khajuraho temples. The works are in rough granite and depict a lot of tradition. This represent the pictures of Gods and Goddesses. The beauty of apsaras and deities is well seen in the carvings. The interior is well designed to allow air and light and this is certainly a tourists must-visit place. The churches in Goa are spell bounding with their masterpiece works. The façade, interiors, dome shaped ceiling, painted windows are a treat to ones eyes. The Portuguese churches are again typical in their setting. St Francis of Asisi, Chapel of St. Cahterine, Church of lady of Rosary and Basilica of Bom Jesus are some of the masterpieces. The Ajanta and Ellora caves are set in Aurangabad which are thirty in number. Most heritage sites are a result of accidental discovery and this too was found by a group of British people who were on a hunting expedition. There is a prayer hall, monastery which strongly suggest Buddhist culture in the Ajanta caves. The Ellora again shows the traces of Jain, Buddhist and Brahman religions.

The Agra fort over the banks of Yamuna is another great place. The red stone colour is unique with the grandeur effect of architecture. Fatehpur Sikri was at its peak during the administration of Akbar. The tomb of Saint Sheik S Chisti, Jama Masjid, Bulund Darwaza are some of the monuments that are famous hers. The Konark temple, Hampi, Qutab Minar are other famous monuments in India.

Rajasthan to Tibet: Pt 3 Kathmandu

I arrive in Kathmandu in the late evening and take a hotel in the northern section of Thamel, the tourist area of town. In the morning I walk into the shopping area and, despite having been told how modern it is, am astonished to find, amid Hindu and Buddhist temples and shrines, large bookshops, high quality hiking and mountaineering gear, the latest western music on CD, high end camera shops, restaurants and cafes offering western cuisine, pastries, breads and cakes, and shops selling the most garish clothes as well as the usual tourist junk.

When Nepal opened its borders to foreigners in the early sixties, Kathmandu quickly became the mecca for mountaineers and hippies and an exotic holiday for tourists. The mystique grew that Kathmandu was the coolest place to hang out and with the increasing influx of westerners with dollars, Kathmandu became one of the fastest growing capitals in the world and is today a surprisingly modern cosmopolitan city.

Notwithstanding forty years of western influence, it comes as a small surprise to find that the average young Nepalis in Kathmandu is also very westernized in looks, clothes, speech and mannerisms, not what you would expect from a completely landlocked kingdom in the Himalayas. Though the aggressive touts are the first faces that the tourist sees, most Nepalis are more laid back and easygoing, content with a comfortable job and good friends.

Durbar Square

Durbar Sq

There is also the traditional side to Kathmandu, particularly in Durbar Square and the many temples surrounding it. Kumari Mahal, the home of Nepal's living goddess, was built in the 18th century and is still inhabited by a series of girl goddesses; Kasthamandap, the oldest temple in town and housing the Hindu god, Gorakhnath, dates from the 14th century; Taleju Temple was built in 1564 and wooden statues of Shiva and Parvati look out of their own temple onto the crowds below. On almost every block are ornate temples and shrines, and sometimes just a humble holy stone at the side of the road.

Kumari Mahal

Boudhanath

Swayambhunath

Tibetan Buddhist temples are also central to Nepalese life. The 1500-year-old Boudanath is an enormous stupa representing all four Tibetan Buddhist sects (Gelu, Kagyu, Nyingma and Sakya) while at Swayambhunath stupa, monkeys rule over the massive vajra, the Tibetan thunderbolt symbol.

Though most of the city's streets are small, dusty and congested with traffic, the homes are to be found in large, quiet, airy enclaves just behind the shops usually with, in the middle of the courtyard, a shrine or temple and children kicking a football.

I ask several Nepalis about the Hindu New Year, Vikram Sambat, but they are all vague about the exact date even though Nepal is the only country to celebrate the Hindu New Year. Then, suddenly, on 13th April, it is the end of the month of Chaitra, the final month in the Hindu calendar and the beginning of Baishakh, the first month of the year 2058 of the Vikram Era, almost at the end of the Kali Yuga or Iron Age, the Age of Ignorance and Suffering, and the beginning of another Sat Yuga or Golden Age, the Age of Knowledge and Enlightenment, Purity, Prosperity and Peace. In the street, at night, they dance to subdue the demons.

Vikram Sambat

Unfortunately for this peaceful people, in the past decade Nepal has been wracked with strife; at first, for democracy against despotic kings and later against a series of corrupt politicians.During my first visit here on my way north to Lhasa, the Nepalis were rioting against the unpopular Prime Minister.

On my return two months later in June, Crown Prince Dipendra, who supposedly killed the Royal family one evening, died on the morning of my arrival sparking off another riot. This time it is over the ascent of King Gyanendra (famous for being the third Nepali king within one week) and his much-feared son who would one day become king.

Kathmandu Mob

The roads into town are sealed off by the police and army and all incoming passengers have to walk the 5 km from Tribhuvan International Airport into town. I walk with two girls, Israeli and Dutch, and along the way we meet several travelers walking to the airport, hoping to fly out. The road is littered with bricks and stones and the smell of tear gas lingers in the air. The Nepali crowd flees from the approaching army dressed in full riot gear, and we follow, unsure why exactly we are running. Most of the men have shaved their heads out of respect for the dead King Birendra and family. They caution us against breaking the roadblocks and advise us to take the back streets into Thamel.

After getting lost in the lanes we go back onto the main road and ask the army for permission to walk into Thamel.

They allow us to walk along the road but halfway to Thamel there is another outbreak of fighting and we take shelter in a police station. Both sides are anxious to keep foreigners out of the fray and we are not told about the reason behind the riots, only that there is a curfew at 3:30 pm. A Thai fellow passenger, also seeking sanctuary at the police station, joins our small band and we continue into Thamel, occasionally taking refuge in shops to avoid the running crowds. The streets have been blocked with logs and fallen lampposts. At one intersection, on an oil drum, is a small shrine with candles. At the roundabouts, groups of police wearing riot armour and carrying sub-machine guns, shields and lathis, watch us curiously. In an empty Thamel, we have to run the last few blocks to get inside our hotel before the curfew.

My hotel does not offer meals and I walk outside in search of dinner. The streets are deserted apart from the odd tourist and the shops are all closed but I find a Tibetan restaurant open and order a meal. On television, the local Nepalese station is not broadcasting but we get reports from CNN and BBC World, which are mostly patchy and speculative. Apparently, no one has the overall picture. I ask a man near my hotel about the rioting. "We don't want Gyanendra as king," he replies. "And especially his son, Paras." "Did you also throw stones?"

Deserted Street

"No, I was here. We don't hate the army. Many of them think the same as us but they have to follow orders."
"How was King Birendra? Was he a good king?"
"He was like a god to us. He gave us democracy."
"Who do you think killed the Royal family?"
"We don't think it was Dipendra. They say he shot himself in the head afterward but the bullet went in on his right side and Dipendra is left-handed. And, the doctor who was attending to him is now dead. Why?"
"Who do you think did the killings, then?"
There is no answer.
"What do you think of Nepal's future under King Gyanendra?" I ask.
He gives me a haunted look.

During the next two days, the curfew shifts from midday to 9 pm but shops and the embassies are still closed. I read, write letters and sneak out to the restaurants to eat and send e-mail to reassure friends that I am safe. Twice I am spotted by roving police patrols in jeeps but they ignore me. On the third day the embassies reopen and I can apply for a new Indian visa. Slowly, Kathmandu returns to normal: shops reopen, the curfew is lifted, the tension eases. Still, the police continue to patrol in trucks and maintain a presence on the main streets. I shop, buy books and continue to watch the television reports which tell me only what I hear on the street.

Royal Shrine

On street corners there are several shrines for the departed King Birendra and his wife, Queen Aiswarya. Someone has made a mandala of coloured powder and placed fruit and candles in front of the Royal photographs. Everywhere are groups of people, lost, bewildered by the tragedy.

The new King Gyanendra orders an inquiry into the killings and everyone awaits the findings. The Nepalis expect it to be a cover up and they all claim to know the truth which, they fear, will be buried with their democratic rights. Twelve days after the killings, the report is read on national television. It has found Crown Prince Dipendra guilty of killing his parents and twelve other Royals. Watching Nepalis scoff and shake their heads.

There is an air of helplessness. "What do you think of the report?" I ask. "We don't believe, but what can we do." "Do you think you will ever know the truth behind the killings?" "Perhaps one day." The following day I take a bus back to India. It leaves Kathmandu in the wet late evening, already the beginning of the monsoon season. The raindrops streaming down the window are like tears from Heaven.

Nepalese Women

Rajasthan to Tibet: Pt 2 Nepal

I leave Delhi at 6am by train arriving in Agra two hours later. The porters immediately seize my luggage and I have to threaten to call the police before they will relinquish it. Outside the station the touts latch on to me like parasites and not even swearing at them will make them go away. The independent taxi fares are too high so I get a pre-paid taxi which is more reasonable. The taxi driver, Mr Juned Khan, is not an old man but his tired face makes him look old.

"Do you know that the average traveler now stays in Agra just 12 hours, only long enough to see the Taj Mahal?" I ask.
"Yes, we know," he replies, with a sad smile.
"Do you know why?" I probe.
"Because we treat the tourists badly. I know we should be less aggressive, but the vendors and touts are uneducated villagers who come from the countryside and want money. We have the best hotels in India but they are all empty because the tourists do not stay. We know we are killing the tourist trade but what can I do?"

"I too, am staying only long enough to photograph the Taj Mahal. I leave this evening," I say.
"Do you know the price of the foreigner's ticket to the Taj?" he asks.
"Twenty American dollars. I cannot afford to buy a ticket."
"Then how will you photograph the Taj?"
"I will find a way," I say.

Juned Khan

Agra kids

I wish to post a parcel which I could not do in Delhi and Mr Khan takes me to a friend who makes up a cloth bag for my items for free. He then takes me to the post office where they reluctantly accept the parcel after ignoring me for over one hour. For the next few hours I walk the back streets of Agra chatting with people outside of the tourist trade: carpenters, masons, teachers and children. In the hot afternoon, a man pumps water for a thirsty cow. Two men sit outside a shop playing chequers. Women sweeping their homes, shout at playing children. An ice cream vendor plies the neighbourhood ringing his bell. .

The road leading to the Taj is lined on both sides with the most persistent and irritating touts in India who swarm over me like flies. "Hello, where are you from? What's your name? Look at this! Buy this!" "Give me one rupee!" "Hello, come inside!" Even my swearing in English and Hindi does not deter them. I later met a Danish couple who were invited into a marble shop in Agra and were locked inside until they bought a marble table which they did not want.

Agra Granny

Agra Mason

The gate to the Taj bears a sign with the price for foreigners at twenty US dollars. I walk around the neighbourhood until I find a restaurant with a rooftop that overlooks the wall to the Taj. Like so many other over-hyped tourist sites, the tomb, built by Shah Jahan for his beloved wife Arjumand Banu Begum, the biggest tourist attraction in India, is a disappointment. The Bengali poet, Rabindranath Tagore, described it as 'the tear that hangs from the cheek of time'. I have always found it odd that though Islamic law ordains that Muslims be buried without embellishment, not even a gravestone, yet the most famous tomb in the world is Islamic. I take my photos and then, after 11 hours in Agra, take a taxi back to the station for the train to Varanasi. A typical tourist.

Taj Mahal

I leave Agra at 8:45pm and during the night there is a dust storm like in a desert. Though dust comes in through the closed windows it is comforting to have a roof over my head. We arrive in Varanasi, previously called Banaras, at 10am the following morning and again, like at Agra, the porters seize my luggage and the touts come at me like piranha.

In China, I met a British couple who had lived in India for over four years.

"Which towns or cities in India would you recommend?" I asked.
"Any town that is not in the guide books," they smiled. "The villages are the best, the tourist towns are the worst."

I had long wanted to visit Varanasi, the City of Light, the City of the Dead, the abode of Shiva, the oldest living city in the world, the holiest city in India, so holy that to die here means liberation from the wheel of reincarnation. But the commercialization of the city has ruined whatever attractions there may have been. Even in the heat of the summer, the touts surround me with lies and deceit and, like a cancer that kills both its host and itself, refuse to leave my side.

"Where are you going? To the bank? The bank is closed. You can change money here."

Three steps further, I find the bank and change my cheques. The touts accompany my every step and every shop I enter has to raise its prices by one-third to include the touts' commission. I refuse to buy anything but that doesn't discourage them. At last, between the blistering summer heat and the touts' persistence I stay inside the hotel. The people here say, "Banaras is wherever you are." At Surya Hotel, I buy a ticket to Sunauli on the Nepalese border on a tourist, air-conditioned, deluxe coach which turns out to be a decrepit bus that never had air-con. The bus is a furnace and the wind, a jet blast. Even with the window open, my sweat runs like a river. Most passengers keep their windows closed. Just after midday the bus suffers a flat tyre.

Deluxe Coach

We spend two hours sitting in the little shade along the road, pouring water over our heads, dreaming of cold beers. A small crowd of people gathers, a few wearing scarves on their heads, hanging down the sides of their faces to cut the sun. For unknown reasons, two policemen armed with lathis chase them away, throwing down the bicycles, lashing out with the lathis.

At 8pm we arrive in Sunauli, the small border town to Nepal. In the darkness, we walk with our luggage 100 meters along a rough road across the border into Nepal. There is no actual border, just a tiny dimly lit Nepalese Immigration Office alongside the road in the middle of town, easy to miss if one were not looking. Two Immigration officers charge everyone, except Indians, 30 American dollars for a visa. Indians and Nepalis go freely back and forth as if it were one country.

All the passengers stay at the Nepal Guesthouse, a large warren past its prime, where, after a long wait, I eat chowmein and a cold beer on an open balcony. The night is blessedly cool and I am glad to be out of the burning Indo-Gangetic Plain. Early in the morning we board an even older bus for Kathmandu. After loading luggage atop the bus, several boys demand payment of ten rupees for each piece of luggage. It is a small sum but it is the last straw after being cheated all along the way and I steadfastly refuse to pay even when it turns into a quarrel with threats to throw my luggage off. It is part of travelling in Asia.

Nepal Road

Nepal Village

The early dawn road to Kathmandu goes up and down beautiful, cool, terraced hills and valleys where villages squat along streams and people live at a leisurely pace.

Some Nepalis look like a mixture of Tibetan and Indian, some look Indian, some look Chinese and some look European. Since most villages are separated by mountains, many tribes have kept their unique customs and bloodlines.

Nepalese Man

Varanasi Onlooker

Nepalese history seem to consist of a series of invaders: Stone Age settlers arrived around 200,000 BC; the Kiratis, a Mongoloid people, took control of the Kathmandu Valley around 800 BC; small kingdoms sprang up in the valleys around 500 BC; around 500 AD the Licchavis from India overthrew the Kiratis bringing Hinduism with them; in 1742 the Shahs from India conquered the Kathmandu Valley and the Empire-building Brits defeated Nepal in 1816.

In 1846 General Jung Bahadur seized control in a coup d'etat, assumed the title of Rana and his family ruled for the next 105 years ending with King Tribhuvan. The recently assassinated King Birendra who came to power in 1972 held onto his throne through police brutality for 19 more years until he was forced to accede to multiparty democracy in 1991. Strangely, he was revered and remembered by the Nepalis as a god. Siddhartha Gautama, one of the early Buddhas, was born in Lumbini, southern Nepal, in 623 BC. He brought Buddhism to Nepal via India with the help of Indian King Ashoka who was a fervent Buddhist three centuries after Siddhartha.

Nepalese God

The Licchavis brought Hinduism from India and although today the official religion of Nepal is Hinduism (Nepal is also the only country to celebrate Vikram Sambat, the Hindu New Year) most Nepalis follow a mixture of Hinduism and Buddhism.

Rajasthan to Tibet: Pt 1 Dehli

Baha'i Lotus Temple
One evening in early April I take a train from Rajasthan to Delhi. Already, the spring heat is uncomfortable and I am looking forward to travelling north to Nepal and Tibet and returning to Lijiang in southwest China. There are passengers riding on the roof of another train pulling out of the station and I assume my train also carries its quota.

My carriage is full of Indians going to Ajmer or Jaipur. One passenger is 23 and though his clothes are rough his face shines with intelligence. He is a teacher in the middle school in his village south of Udaipur and is on his way to Jaipur to seek the post of headmaster at his school.

"When I was at university in Bihar," he says, "I spent one month in Kathmandu. My classmates went home but I wanted to see another country, another way of life. Now I teach English Literature; it is special. My favourite author is John Milton. I love Samson Agonistes, have you read it? Sometimes the other teachers ask me to give a talk at school and I give a discourse on Milton. Then none of the other teachers can argue because it is above their heads, they don't understand great literature."

Train Passengers

Train Roof Riders

Being the only son and having inherited the family acres he is also a farmer. "Teaching is not a well paid job," he says, "and I must also do farming if I am to support my mother and sisters. If I get the post of headmaster, then in a few years I can think of marrying."

Outside, the parched earth slides past the window.

The Tibetan colony of Majnu Ka Tila lies somewhere in the north of Delhi. The Tibetan and Nepalese residents aren't sure of its age nor where it is exactly in relation to Delhi and I suspect that few ever leave the settlement. Many were born here thirty years ago, some were refugees fleeing Tibet. The colony, with groups of Tibetan Buddhist monks in red and yellow and women in Tibetan attire, struggle to maintain traditional Tibetan culture but the western clothes and haircuts worn by the younger ones and the proliferation of Internet cafes everywhere give a decidedly modern image.

Majnu Ka Tila Street

Tibetans, Majnu Ka Tila

Given my dislike for big cities, I too, would probably never leave Majnu Ka Tila to venture out into Delhi. True, Delhi is green and clean but it's also very large, takes forever to get to where you're going and quite expensive even without shopping. The city, among the first in the world, is struggling for a clean image by converting the buses, taxis and motorcycle rickshaws to CNG fuel. But because of the expense of the conversion from regular gas and the insufficient number of gas stations that sell CNG gas, many long distance bus companies are protesting by not sending out their buses and pressing for a general strike. It is impossible to get a bus to Kathmandu or even to the Nepalese border.

Delhi Rickshaws

Riding in a cycle rickshaw in Delhi traffic is a heart-pounding experience. The rickshaws are stripped down to bare essentials like racing machines and I feel the finger of death when we're squeezed between juggernaut trucks and buses in a congested street. Technically speaking, the black and yellow auto rickshaws provide more protection with their cabins but the close shaves as they zip in and out of gaps in the traffic are still terrifying. More comfortable are the cream Ambassador Nova taxis, which, like London taxis, look pre-Independence. The taxis and rickshaws that have converted to CNG look clean 'n green painted in the new yellow and green

I thought that Delhi, the capital of India and third largest city, would be ultra modern and fashionable. This was one of the two capitals (the other being Agra) of the Mughal Empire whose emperors built palaces, forts and tombs on a grand scale. Indira Gandhi International Airport comes close; if not flying, one must pay 50 rupees just to enter the building. But, downtown New Delhi, Connaught Place, organized into concentric circles with wide streets and massive buildings, is hardly ritz. Like Bombay or Jaipur, there is the sense of fading grandeur, like an ageing rani now living off her jewels. The embassy area, Chanakyapuri, looks like California with quiet streets, huge offices, wide lawns and greenery. Oddly, though they want the foreign dollars, every embassy nowadays gives visitors the impression, "Why are you bothering us?" It reminds me that there is a difference between ritz and rich; one can have class even without money; rich simply means having money, often without class. There is history in Delhi though.

Red Fort (Lal Qila) is the palace complex begun in 1639 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan who built the Taj Mahal at the time when the capital shifted between Agra and Delhi. It is a large compound with palaces, museums, fountains, the harem and perimeter walls 2 km in length and walls that rise 33 m high which shows how impudent the Brits were in thinking they could subdue the sub-continent. There is a silly light and sound show at night that is best avoided. Like the Taj Mahal, or even Beijing's Forbidden City, the Red Fort could perhaps be considered beautiful were it not for the prevailing atmosphere that surrounds most tourist sites: "We don't want you, just your money, all of it." My foreigner's ticket cost 235 rupees; a local's ticket costs 5 rupees.

Red Fort

Even this costly ticket would be almost worth it if most of the Red Fort were not closed off to the public. To visit the Taj Mahal would cost a foreigner 920 rupees; a local, 20 rupees. On Fridays, however, if you like dense crowds, entry is free. Even dhaba habitués, like myself, like to eat something fancy once in a while. Karim's, next to Jamma Masjid, next to Red Fort, is wonderfully informal and the unpretentious, excellent and reasonably priced food comes recommended by food columns in newspapers around the world which are framed and hung on the walls. The owners are said to be descended from palace chefs of the Mughal era and the food is so good they may very well be.

Moti Mahal Restaurant is best described as grubby chic. The high-ceilinged dining rooms are lit by chandeliers but the table cloths, like the waiters' uniforms, are stained and mismatched. The curries are good and a meal costs about 300 rupees per person, three times the cost of an average meal in an ordinary café, six times that of a good meal in a dhaba. Of course, one doesn't find tandoori or chandeliers in most dhabas. At Moti Mahal the waiters demand their tips, pointing out that there is no service charge on the bill and are disgruntled with 10% of the total.

Paharganj street

Paharganj in Old Delhi, next to the New Delhi Railway Station, is a busy bazaar area, a microcosm of Asia, crammed with shops selling tourist kitsch, guest houses, hotels, cafes, money changers, jewelers, bookshops, internet cafes, fruit stalls, vegetable markets, cows, rickshaws, carts, taxis, people and touts willing to show you to a guest house for a commission. Here also can be found India's first wireless or satellite Internet café at one sixth the standard rate per hour. I expected the usual five or six terminals and am astounded to enter a large office with seventy-five terminals all in use with a further fifteen or twenty waiting customers. As I enter the New Delhi Railway Station to book a ticket I am met by an "official" who tells me that the ticket office has been moved to a nearby building and offers to take me there.

I follow him to an office that is being painted and the counters still covered in sawdust. The door carries a sign "Official Tourist Office" and the staff worker is busy putting books in order. I find his train fare to Agra to be very expensive and when he offers to book a taxi and hotel I ask to see a Government Railway receipt or rubber stamp, neither of which he can produce. I leave the office and return to the Railway Station where I am met by another "official" on the stairway who gives me a similar story. I brush past him and continue to the second floor where I find the Foreigners Booking Office open. While I am booking my ticket to Agra, I tell the staff worker about the con men but he remains unconcerned.

The Baha'i Temple in South Delhi was built in the form of a lotus flower from white marble. Simple and elegant, it is a marvel of modern architecture against the evening sky. There are no services and no sermons. Inside are rows of benches where I sit, on my last evening in Delhi, and meditate in the silence, gazing up 34 m to the apex of the arching roof.